Internet terms

IP Address
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The "IP address" is the Internal IP address of the Router. To access the advanced setup interface, type this IP address into the address bar of your browser. This address can be changed if needed. To Change the IP address, type in the new IP address and click "Apply Changes". The IP address you choose should be a non-routable IP. Examples of a non-routable IP are:
dw(g2);
192.168.x.z (where x is anything between 0 and 255, z is anything between 1 and 254.)
dw(g3);
10.x.x.z (where x is anything between 0 and 255, z is anything between 1 and 254.)
dw(g4);
172.y.x.z (where y is anything from 16 to 31, x is anything between 0 and 255, z is anything between 1 and 254.)

dw(ws4);
Subnet Mask
dw(AF);
ADVANCED FEATURE!
dw(g5);
There is no need to change the subnet mask. It is possible to change the subnet mask if necessary. Only make changes to the Subnet Mask if you specifically have a reason to do so.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
'DNS'+
''+g6+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
DNSDNS is an acronym for Domain Name Server. A Domain Name Server is a server located on the Internet that translates URL's (Universal Resource Links) like www.belkin.com to IP addresses. Many ISP's do not require you to enter this information into the Router. The "Automatic from ISP" checkbox should be checked if your ISP did not give you a specific DNS address. If you are using a Static IP connection type, then you may need to enter a specific DNS address and secondary DNS address for your connection to work properly. If your connection type is Dynamic or PPPoE, it is likely that you do not have to enter a DNS address. To enter the DNS address settings, uncheck the "Automatic from ISP" checkbox and enter your DNS entries in the spaces provided. Click "Apply Changes" to save the settings.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
'DDNS'+
''+ g58 +
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
DDNSThe Dynamic DNS service allows you to alias a dynamic IP address to a static host name in any of the many domains DynDNS.org offers, allowing your network computers to be more easily accessed from various locations on the Internet. DynDNS.org provides this service, for up to five host names, free to the Internet community.The Dynamic DNSSM service is ideal for a home website, file server, or to make it easy to access your home PC and stored files while you're at work. Using the service can ensure that your host name always points to your IP address, no matter how often your ISP changes it. When your IP address changes, your friends and associates can always locate you by visiting yourname.dyndns.org instead!Setting up the Router's Dynamic DNS Update ClientTo register free for your Dynamic DNS host name, please visit http://www.dyndns.org.Setting up the Router's Dynamic DNS Update ClientYou must register with DynDNS.org's free update service before using this feature. Once you have your registration, follow the directions below.1.Enter your DynDNS.org user name in the "User Name" field (1).2.Enter your DynDNS.org password in the "Password" field (2).3.Enter the DynDNS.org domain name you set up with DynDNS.org in the "Domain Name" field (3).4.Click "Update Dynamic DNS" to update your IP address.Whenever your IP address assigned by your ISP changes, the Router will automatically update DynDNS.org's servers with your new IP address. You can also do this manually by clicking the "Update Dynamic DNS" button (4).
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
'DHCP'+
''+g7+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
DHCPThe DHCP server function makes setting up a network very easy by assigning IP addresses to each computer on the network. The DHCP Server can be turned off if necessary. Turning off the DHCP server will require you to manually set a Static IP address in each computer on your network. The IP pool is the range of IP addresses set aside for dynamic assignment to the computers on your network. The default is 2-100 (99 computers) if you want to change this number, you can by entering a new starting and ending IP address and clicking on "Apply Changes".
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+ls20+''+
''+g8+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Local Domain NameYou can set a local domain name (network name) for your network. There is no need to change this setting unless you have a specific advanced need to do so. You can name the network anything you want such as "MY NETWORK".
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g9+''+
''+g10+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Dynamic IPA dynamic connection type is the most common connection type found with cable modems. Setting the connection type to dynamic in many cases is enough to complete the connection to your ISP. Some dynamic connection types may require a Host Name. You can enter your Host Name in the space provided if you were assigned one. Your Host Name is assigned by your ISP. Some dynamic connections may require that you clone the MAC address of the PC that was originally connected to the modem. To do so, click on the "Change WAN MAC address" link in the screen. The Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+fd6+''+
''+g11+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Static IPA Static IP address connection type is less common than other connection types. If your ISP uses static IP addressing, you will need your IP address, Subnet Mask, and ISP gateway address. This information is available from your ISP or on the paperwork that your ISP left with you. Type in your information then click "Apply Changes". After you apply the changes, the Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
'PPPoE'+
''+g12+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
PPPoEMost DSL providers use PPPoE as the connection type. If you use a DSL modem to connect to the Internet, your ISP may use PPPoE to log you into the service. If you have an Internet connection in your home or small office that doesn't require a modem, you may also use PPPoE. Your connection type is PPPoE if:1) Your ISP gave you a user name and password which is required to connect to the Internet2) Your ISP gave you software such as WinPOET, Enternet300 that you use to connect to the Internet3) You have to double-click on a desktop Icon other than your browser to get on the InternetTo set the Router to use PPPoE, type in your User Name and Password in the spaces provided. If you do not have a Service Name or do not know it, leave the Service Name field blank. After you have typed in your information, click "Apply Changes". After you apply the changes, the Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly. For more details on configuring your Router to use PPPoE, see the user manual.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
'PPTP'+
''+g13+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
PPTPSome ISPs require a connection using PPTP protocol. This sets up a direct connection to the ISP's system. Type in the information provided by your ISP in the space provided. When you have finished, click "Apply Changes". After you apply the changes, the Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
'L2TP'+
''+g47+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
L2TPSome ISPs require a connection using L2TP protocol. This sets up a direct connection to the ISP's system. Type in the information provided by your ISP in the space provided. When you have finished, click "Apply Changes". After you apply the changes, the Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+wc11+''+
''+g14+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Telstra BigPondYour user name and password are provided to you by Telstra BigPond. Enter this information below. Choosing your state will automatically fill in your Login Server IP address. If your Login Server address is different than one provided here, you may manually enter the Login Server IP address. When you have entered your information, click "Apply Changes". After you apply the changes, the Internet Status indicator will read "Connected" if your Router is set up properly.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g15+''+
''+g16+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
MTU SettingThe MTU setting should never be changed unless your ISP gives you a specific MTU setting. Making changes to the MTU setting can cause problems with your Internet connection including disconnection from the Internet, slow Internet access and problems with Internet applications working properly.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g17+''+
''+g18+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Disconnect after X...The Disconnect feature is used to automatically disconnect the router from your ISP when there is no activity for a specified period of time. For instance, placing a checkmark next to this option and entering 5 into the minute field will cause the router to disconnect from the Internet after 5 minutes of no Internet activity. This option should be used if you pay for your Internet service by the minute.

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MAC Address
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MAC is an acronym for Media Access Controller. All network components including cards, adapters, and routers, have a unique "serial number" called a MAC address. Your ISP may record the MAC address of your computer's adapter and only let that particular computer connect to the Internet service. When you install the router, the Router's own MAC address will be "seen" by the ISP and may cause the connection not to work. Belkin has provided the ability to clone (copy) the MAC address of the computer into the router. This MAC address, in turn, will be seen by the ISP's system as the original MAC address and will allow the connection to work. If you are not sure if your ISP needs to see the original MAC address, simply clone the MAC address of the computer that was originally connected to the modem. Cloning the address will not cause any problems with your network. To Clone your MAC address, make sure that you are using the computer which was ORIGINALLY CONNECTED to your modem before the Router was installed. Click the "Clone" button. Click "Apply Changes". Your MAC address is now cloned to the router.
var wild_wireless = 1;
if(wild_wireless == 1)
{
document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write(wlm3);
document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write(g20);
document.write('');
document.write('');

document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write(wlc9);
document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write(g21);
document.write('');
document.write('');

document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write(wlc14);
document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write('');
document.write(wlc15);
document.write('');
document.write('');
}
Channel and SSIDTo change the channel of operation of the Router, select the desired channel from the drop-down menu. Click "Apply Changes" to save the setting. You can also change the SSID. The SSID is the equivalent to the wireless network's name. You can make the SSID anything you want to. If there are other wireless networks in your area, you should give your wireless network a unique name. The default is belkin54g. To change the SSID, click inside of the SSID box and type in a new name. Click "Apply Changes" to make the change.
Broadcast SSIDIt is possible to make your wireless network nearly invisible. By turning off the broadcast of the SSID, your network will not appear in a site survey. Site Survey is a feature of many wireless network adapters on the market today. It will scan the "air" for any available network and allow the computer to select the network from the site survey. Turning off the broadcast of the SSID will help increase security.
Use as Access PointWhen using the Router as an Access Point, you must specify an IP address for the Access Point. This IP address must fall into the same range as the network that you will be connecting it to. To access the advanced setup interface of the Router again, type in the IP address in the web browser and login.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+wlc12+''+
''+wlc13+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Protected ModeNOTE: In most situations, best performance (throughput) is achieved with Protected Mode OFF. If you are operating in an environment with HEAVY 802.11b traffic or interference, best performance may be achieved with Protected Mode ON.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+wwmm2+''+
''+wwmm3+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
802.11e QoSQuality of Service (QoS) refers to the capability of a network to provide better service to selected network traffic. The primary goal of QoS is to provide priority including dedicated bandwidth, controlled jitter and latency (required by some real-time and interactive traffic), and improved loss characteristics. Also important is making sure that providing priority for one or more flows does not make other flows fail. QoS technologies provide the elemental building blocks that will be used for future business applications in campus, WAN, and service provider networks.
if('0'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+wlwps2+''+
''+wlwps5+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
if('0'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
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''+g24+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
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'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Virtual ServersThis function will allow you to route external (Internet) calls for services such as a web server (port 80), FTP server (Port 21), or other applications through your Router to your internal network. Since your internal computers are protected by a firewall, machines from the Internet cannot get to them because they cannot be 'seen'. If you need to configure the Virtual Server function for a specific application, a list of common applications has been provided. If your application is not listed, you will need to contact the application vendor to find out which port settings you need. To select from the provided list, select your application from the drop-down list. Select the row that you want to copy the settings to from the drop-down list next to "to row", then click "Enter". The settings will be transferred to the row you specified. Click "Apply Changes" to save the setting for that application. To manually enter settings, enter the IP address in the space provided for the internal (server) machine, the port(s) required to pass (use a comma between multiple ports), select the port type (TCP or UDP) and click "Apply Changes". You can only pass one port per internal IP address. Opening ports in your firewall can pose a security risk. You can enable and disable settings very quickly. It is recommended that you disable the settings when you are not using a specific application.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g29+''+
''+g30+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
MAC Address FilteringThe MAC Address Filter is a powerful security feature that allows you to specify which computers are allowed on the network. Any computer attempting to access the network that is not specified in the filter list will be denied access. When you enable this feature, you must enter the MAC address of each client on your network to allow network access to each. The "Block" feature lets you turn on and off access to the network easily for any computer without having to add and remove the computer's MAC address from the list. To enable this feature, select "Enable MAC Address Filtering". Next, enter the MAC address of each computer on your network by clicking "Add" and entering the MAC address in the space provided. Click "Apply Changes" to save the settings. To delete a MAC address from the list, simply click "Delete" next to the MAC address you wish to delete. Click "Apply Changes" to save the settings. Note: you will not be able to delete the MAC address of the computer you are using to access the Router's administrative functions. (The computer you are using now).
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g27+''+
''+g28+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Client IP filtersThe Router can be configured to restrict access to the Internet, e-mail or other network services at specific days and times. Restriction can be set for a single computer, a range of computers, or multiple computers. To restrict Internet access to a single computer for example, enter the IP address of the computer you wish to restrict access to in the IP fields. Next enter 80 and 80 in the Port fields. Select TCP. Select Block. You can also select Always to block access all of the time. Select the day to start on top, the time to start on top, the day to end on the bottom and the time to stop on the bottom. Click "Apply Changes". The computer at the IP address you specified will now be blocked from Internet access at the times you specified. Note: be sure you have selected the correct time zone under Utilities> System Settings> Time Zone.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
'DMZ'+
''+g31+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
DMZThe DMZ feature allows you to specify one computer on your network to be placed outside of the NAT firewall. This may be necessary if the NAT feature is causing problems with an application such as a game or video conferencing application. Use this feature on a temporary basis. The computer in the DMZ is not protected from hacker attacks. To put a computer in the DMZ, enter the last digits of its IP address in the IP field and select "Enable". Click "Apply Changes" for the change to take effect. If you are using multiple static WAN IP addresses, it is possible to select which WAN IP address the DMZ host will be directed to. Type in the WAN IP address you wish the DMZ host to direct to, enter the last two digits of the IP address of the DMZ host computer, select "Enable" and Click "Apply Changes".
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g32+''+
''+g33+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Block ICMP PingComputer hackers use what is known as "Pinging" to find potential victims on the Internet. By pinging a specific IP address and receiving a response from the IP address, a hacker can determine that something of interest might be there. The Router can be set up so it will not respond to an ICMP Ping from the outside. This heightens the level of security of your Router. To turn off the ping response, select "Block ICMP Ping" and click "Apply Changes". The router will not respond to an ICMP ping.

dw(g34);
Administrator Password
dw(g35);
The Router ships with NO password entered. If you wish to add a password for more security, you can set a password here. Keep your password in a safe place, as you will need this password if you need to log into the router in the future. It is also recommended that you set a password if you plan to use the Remote management feature of this Router. The login timeout option allows you to set the period of time that you can be logged into the Router's advanced setup interface. The timer starts when there has been no activity. For example, you have made some changes in the advanced setup interface, then left your computer alone without clicking "Logout". Assuming the timeout is set to 10 minutes, then 10 minutes after you leave, the login session will expire. You will have to login to the router again to make any more changes. The login timeout option is for security purposes and the default is set to 10 minutes. As a note, only one computer can be logged into the Router's advanced setup interface at one time.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g36+''+
''+g37+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Time and Time ZoneThe Router keeps time by connecting to a Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP) server. This allows the Router to synchronize the system clock to the global Internet. The synchronized clock in the Router is used to record the security log and control client filtering. Select the time zone that you reside in. If you reside in an area that observes Daylight Saving, then place a checkmark in the box next to "Enable Daylight Saving". The system clock may not update immediately. Allow at least 15 minutes for the router to contact the time servers on the Internet and get a response. You cannot set the clock yourself.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g38+''+
''+ g39+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
Remote ManagementBefore you enable this function,MAKE SURE YOU HAVE SET THE ADMINISTRATOR PASSWORD. Remote management allows you to make changes to your Router's settings from anywhere on the Internet. There are two methods of remotely managing the router. The first method is to allow access to the router from anywhere on the Internet by selecting "Any IP address can remotely manage the router". By typing in your WAN IP address from any computer on the Internet, you will be presented with a login screen where you need to type in the password of your router. The Second method is to allow a specific IP address only to remotely manage the router. This is more secure, but less convenient. To use this method, enter the IP address you know you will be accessing the Router from in the space provided and select "Only this IP address can remotely manage the Router". Before you enable this function, it is STRONGLY RECOMMENDED that you set your administrator password. Leaving the password empty will potentially open your router to intrusion.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
''+g40+''+
''+ g41+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
NAT EnablingBefore you enable this function, MAKE SURE YOU HAVE SET THE ADMINISTRATOR PASSWORD. Network Address Translation (NAT) is the method by which the router shares the single IP address assigned by your ISP with the computers on your network. Advanced users should only use this function. This function should only be used if your ISP assigns you multiple IP addresses or you need NAT disabled for an advanced system configuration. If you have a single IP address and you turn NAT off, the computers on your network will not be able to access the Internet. Other problems may also occur. Turning off NAT will disable your firewall functions.
if('1'=='1')
{
var strHtml=
'UPnP'+
''+g42+
'';
document.writeln(strHtml);
}
UPnPUPnP (Universal Plug-and-Play) is a technology that offers seamless operation of voice messaging, video messaging, games, and other applications that are UPnP compliant. Some applications require the Router's firewall to be configured in a specific way to operate properly. This usually requires opening TCP and UDP ports and in some instances setting trigger ports. An application that is UPnP compliant has the ability to communicate with the Router, basically "telling" the Router which way it needs the firewall configured. The Router ships with the UPnP feature disabled. If you are using any applications that are UPnP compliant, and wish to take advantage of the UPnP features, you can enable the UPnP feature. Simply select "Enable" in the "UPnP Enabling" section of the Utilities page. Click "Apply Changes" to save the change.

dw(g43);
Automatic Firmware Update Notification
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The Router has the capability built-in to automatically check for a new version of firmware and alert you that the new firmware is available. When you log into the Router advanced interface, the router will perform a check to see if new firmware is available. If new firmware is available, you will be notified. You can choose to download the new version or ignore it. The router ships with this feature disabled. If you want to enable it, select "Enable" and click "Apply Changes".

dw(g45);
Wireless Security
dw(g46);
Using Encryption can help secure your wireless network. Only one type of security may be selected at a time. Therefore the customer must select a mode that is supported on all network devices on the wireless network. This Belkin product has 4 possible Security settings:1) Disabled. No encryption is enabled in this mode. Open networks where all users are welcome sometimes prefer to not enable encryption.2) WPA PSK - Home (no server). WPA (Wireless protected Access) PSK is a recent standards-based security technique where each packet of information is encrypted with a different code, or key. Since the key is constantly changing, WPA is very secure. There are two types of WPA, WPA-PSK (Pre-Shared Key), and WPA-Radius Server. Obviously the difference being that one requires a server and one does not. WPA-PSK is for home and small business users who do not have a server. The PSK encryption key is generated automatically from a string of characters or Pass Phrase. Obviously the biggest security risk in WPA PSK is if someone finds out your Pass Phrase.a. TKIP verses AES. WPA setup requires the user to select whether to encrypt using TKIP or AES. The WPA standard specifies TKIP, so that is the default. Additionally TKIP should provide better compatibility between wireless products from different vendors since many wireless products will never be upgraded to AES. AES is a new encryption technique based on the un-ratified 802.11i standard. New WPA standards are being considered using AES. Although AES is not as popular, some users may prefer to use this technique. Either way, all networks devices must use the same technique.b. Pre-Shared Key. Enter any word or phrase up to 40 characters. The same PSK must also be used for every other wireless network device on the network. Watch out for upper and lower case differences ("n" is different than "N".) Remember, the easiest way to break your security is for someone to guess your PSK.3) 128-bit WEP. Until recently, 128-bit WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) was the standard for wireless encryption. If not all of your wireless devices support WPA, 128bit WEP still offers very good security option. It will require you to enter hex numbers, or you can generate them automatically.4) 64-bit WEP. Belkin only recommends 64-bit mode on networks where some devices do not support either WPA or 128bit WEP.

storage part 2

notes

lap top h.d.d 2 1/2" deck top 5 1/2"

lap top's H.D.D typically have IDE/ATA miniature connector

Jumper configurations

CS-Cable select= were hard drive automatically detects on what position the hard drive is attached to on the IDE/ATA cable
Ma-Master= Were the hard drive is manually configured to be placed in the master position on the IDE/ATA cable

Sl-Slave= Were the hard drive is manually configured to be placed on the slave position on the IDE/ATA cable

H.D.D Parts

Spindle- were the platters connect to the H.D.D moder

Platter- Reflective aluminum dick in which magnetic data is stored onto.

Actuator- Little arm that precisely moved the R/W head on the platter

R/W Head- tiny head at the end of the actuator arm that reads and write data on the platter

RAID

Raid 0= uses multiple disks to get collective storage and aggregates performance of multiple hard drives

Raid 1= Uses multiple hard drives, but the hard drives are exact copies of one another for back up purposes

Raid 5= uses multiple disks to get collective storage and aggregates performance of multiple hard drives, also has a parity drive.
note minimum of three disks must be used

Parity disk= disk used in Raid 5 that stored mathematical data.
note in the event of a hard drive fail, the parity disk uses the mathematical data to rebuild the failed disk.

Duplexing= were each SCSI drive had its own raid controller
Note only raid 1 can do duplexing

SCSI Specifications

SCSI Standard Number/Name	Bus Width	Throughput (MBps)	Cable Pin Count	Signaling	Max Devices (Incl. Host Adapter)	Max Length (M)
SCSI-1/ “Regular” SCSI	8	5	50	SE	8	6
				HVD	8	25
SCSI-2/ Fast SCSI Fast narrow	8	10	50	SE	8	3­
				HVD	8	25
SCSI-2/ Fast wide SCSI	16	20	68	SE	16	3
				HVD	16	25
SCSI-3/SPI Ultra SCSI	8	20	50	SE	8 4	1.5* 3
				HVD	8	25
SCSI-3/SPI Wide Ultra SCSI Fast Wide 20	16	40	68	SE	16 4	1.5* 3
				HVD	16	25
SCSI-3/SPI-2 Ultra2 SCSI	8	40	50	LVD	8	12
SCSI-3/SPI-2 Wide Ultra 2 SCSI	16	80	68	LVD	16	12
SCSI-3/SPI-3 Ultra 160 SCSI	16	160	68	LVD	16	12
SCSI-3/ Wide Ultra 3 SCSI Ultra 320	16	320	68	LVD	16	12

*5 or more devices: 1.5 meters. 1-4 devices: 3 meters.

**25 M cable can be used only when connecting a single device
Note: For bus width, 8 bits = “narrow” and 16 bits = “wide.” 8-bit SCSI always accepts 8 devices, 16-bit SCSI always accepts 16 devices.

Note: HVD cable always has a max length of 25 meters. LVD cable always has a max length of 12 meters.

Common SCSI ID Assignments:

ID 0 – Bootable Hard Disk

ID 7 – Host Adapter

ID 3 – CD/DVD

Command Line Utilities
Attrib
Displays, sets, or removes the read-only, archive, system, and hidden attributes assigned to files or directories. Used without parameters, attrib displays attributes of all files in the current directory.
Syntax
attrib [{+r | -r}] [{+a | -a}] [{+s | -s}] [{+h | -h}] [[Drive:][Path] FileName] [/s[/d]]
Parameters
+r
Sets the read-only file attribute.
-r
Clears the read-only file attribute.
+a
Sets the archive file attribute.
-a
Clears the archive file attribute.
+s
Sets the system file attribute.
-s
Clears the system file attribute.
+h
Sets the hidden file attribute.
-h
Clears the hidden file attribute.
[Drive:][Path] FileName
Specifies the location and name of the directory, file, or set of files for which you want to display or change attributes. You can use wildcard characters (that is, ? and *) in the FileName parameter to display or change the attributes for a group of files.
/s
Applies attrib and any command-line options to matching files in the current directory and all of its subdirectories.
/d
Applies attrib and any command-line options to directories.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

Cmd
Starts a new instance of the command interpreter, Cmd.exe. Used without parameters, cmd displays the version and copyright information of the operating system.
Syntax
cmd [{/c | /k}] [/s] [/q] [/d] [{/a | /u}] [/t:FG] [/e:{on | off}] [/f:{on | off}] [/v:{on | off}] [String]
Parameters
/c
Carries out the command specified by String and then stops.
/k
Carries out the command specified by String and continues.
/s
Modifies the treatment of String after /c or /k.
/q
Turns the echo off.
/d
Disables execution of AutoRun commands.
/a
Formats internal command output to a pipe or a file as American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
/u
Formats internal command output to a pipe or a file as Unicode.
/t:FG
Sets the foreground F and background G colors. The following tables lists valid hexadecimal digits that you can use as the values for F and G.
Value
Color
0
Black
1
Blue
2
Green
3
Aqua
4
Red
5
Purple
6
Yellow
7
White
8
Gray
9
Light blue
A
Light green
B
Light aqua
C
Light red
D
Light purple
E
Light yellow
F
Bright white
/e:on
Enables command extensions.
/e:off
Disables commands extensions.
/f:on
Enables file and directory name completion.
/f:off
Disables file and directory name completion.
/v:on
Enables delayed environment variable expansion.
/v:off
Disables delayed environment variable expansion.
String
Specifies the command you want to carry out.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

Copy
Copies one or more files from one location to another.
Syntax
copy [/d] [/v] [/n] [{/y | /-y}] [/z] [{/a | /b}] Source [{/a | /b}] [+ Source [{/a | /b}] [+ ...]] [Destination [{/a | /b}]]
Parameters
/d
Allows the encrypted files being copied to be saved as decrypted files at the destination.
/v
Verifies that new files are written correctly.
/n
Uses a short file name, if available, when copying a file with a name longer than eight characters, or with a file extension longer than three characters.
/y
Suppresses prompting to confirm that you want to overwrite an existing destination file.
/-y
Prompts you to confirm that you want to overwrite an existing destination file.
/z
Copies networked files in restartable mode.
/a
Indicates an ASCII text file.
/b
Indicates a binary file.
Source
Required. Specifies the location from which you want to copy a file or set of files. Source can consist of a drive letter and colon, a folder name, a file name, or a combination of these.
Destination
Required. Specifies the location to which you want to copy a file or set of files. Destination can consist of a drive letter and colon, a folder name, a file name, or a combination of these.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

Defrag
Locates and consolidates fragmented boot files, data files, and folders on local volumes.
Syntax
defrag Volume
defrag Volume [/a]
defrag Volume [/a] [/v]
defrag Volume [/v]
defrag Volume [/f]
Parameters
Volume
The drive letter or a mount point of the volume to be defragmented.
/a
Analyzes the volume, displays a summary of the analysis report, and indicates whether you should defragment the volume.
/v About me:
Displays the complete analysis and defragmentation reports. When used in combination with /a, displays only the analysis report. When used alone, displays both the analysis and defragmentation reports.
/f
Forces defragmentation of the volume when free space is low.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

Del (erase)About me:
Deletes specified files.
Syntax
del [Drive:][Path] FileName [ ...] [/p] [/f] [/s] [/q] [/a[:Attributes]]
erase [Drive:][Path] FileName [ ...] [/p] [/f] [/s] [/q] [/a[:Attributes]]
Parameters
[Drive:][Path] FileName
Specifies the location and name of the file or set of files you want to delete. FileName is required. You can use multiple file names. Separate file names with spaces, commas, or semicolons.
/p
Prompts you for confirmation before deleting the specified file.
/f
Forces deletion of read-only files.
/s
Deletes specified files from the current directory and all subdirectories. Displays the names of the files as they are being deleted.
/q
Specifies quiet mode. You are not prompted for delete confirmation.
/a
Deletes files based on specified attributes.
Attributes
Specifies any of the file attributes listed in the following table.
Attribute
Description
r
Read-only
a
Archive
s
System
h
Hidden
-
Prefix that means NOT
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

Rename (ren)
Changes the name of a file or a set of files.
Syntax
rename [Drive:][Path] FileName1 FileName2
ren [Drive:][Path] FileName1 FileName2
Parameters
[Drive:][Path] FileName1
Specifies the location and name of the file or set of files you want to rename.
FileName2
Specifies the new name for the file. If you use wildcards (* and ?), FileName2 specifies the new names for the files. You cannot specify a new drive or path when renaming files.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

Deltree
Deletes a directory and all the subdirectories and files in it.

To delete one or more files and directories:
DELTREE [/Y] [drive:]path [[drive:]path[...]]

/Y Suppresses prompting to confirm you want to delete
the subdirectory.
[drive:]path Specifies the name of the directory you want to delete.

Note: Use DELTREE cautiously. Every file and subdirectory within the
specified directory will be deleted.

Dir
Displays a list of a directory's files and subdirectories. Used without parameters, dir displays the disk's volume label and serial number, followed by a list of directories and files on the disk, including their names and the date and time each was last modified. For files, dir displays the name extension and the size in bytes. Dir also displays the total number of files and directories listed, their cumulative size, and the free space (in bytes) remaining on the disk.
Syntax
dir [Drive:][Path][FileName] [...] [/p] [/q] [/w] [/d] [/a[[:]Attributes]][/o[[:]SortOrder]] [/t[[:]TimeField]] [/s] [/b] [/l] [/n] [/x] [/c] [/4]
Parameters
[Drive:][Path]
Specifies the drive and directory for which you want to see a listing.
[FileName]
Specifies a particular file or group of files for which you want to see a listing.
/p
Displays one screen of the listing at a time. To see the next screen, press any key on the keyboard.
/q
Displays file ownership information.
/w
Displays the listing in wide format, with as many as five file names or directory names on each line.
/d
Same as /w but files are sorted by column.
/a [[:] Attributes]
Displays only the names of those directories and files with the attributes you specify. If you omit /a, dir displays the names of all files except hidden and system files. If you use /a without specifying Attributes, dir displays the names of all files, including hidden and system files. The following list describes each of the values you can use for Attributes. The colon (:) is optional. Use any combination of these values, and do not separate the values with spaces.
Value
Description
h
Hidden files
s
System files
d
Directories
a
Files ready for archiving
r
Read-only files
-h
Files that are not hidden
-s
Files other than system files
-d
Files only (not directories)
-a
Files that have not changed since the last backup
-r
Files that are not read-only
/o [[:]SortOrder]
Controls the order in which dir sorts and displays directory names and file names. If you omit /o, dir displays the names in the order in which they occur in the directory. If you use /o without specifying SortOrder, dir displays the names of the directories, sorted in alphabetic order, and then displays the names of files, sorted in alphabetic order. The colon (:) is optional. The following list describes each of the values you can use for SortOrder. Use any combination of the values, and do not separate these values with white spaces.
Value
Description
n
In alphabetic order by name
e
In alphabetic order by extension
d
By date and time, earliest first
s
By size, smallest first
g
With directories grouped before files
-n
In reverse alphabetic order by name (Z through A)
-e
In reverse alphabetic order by extension (.ZZZ through .AAA)
-d
By date and time, latest first
-s
By size, largest first
-g
With directories grouped after files
/t [[:]TimeField]
Specifies which time field to display or use for sorting. The following list describes each of the values you can use for TimeField.
Value
Description
c
Creation
a
Last access
w
Last written
/s
Lists every occurrence, in the specified directory and all subdirectories, of the specified file name.
/b
Lists each directory name or file name, one per line, including the file name extension. /b does not display heading information or a summary. /b overrides /w.
/l
Displays unsorted directory names and file names in lowercase. /l does not convert extended characters to lowercase.
/n
Displays a long list format with file names on the far right of the screen.
/x
Displays the short names generated for files on NTFS and FAT volumes. The display is the same as the display for /n, but short names are displayed after the long name.
/c
Displays the thousand separator in file sizes.
/4
Displays four-digit year format.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

Echo
Turns the command echoing feature on or off, or displays a message. Used without parameters, echo displays the current echo setting.
Syntax
echo [{on | off}] [Message]
Parameters
{on | off}
Specifies whether to turn the command echoing feature on or off.
Message
Specifies the text that you want to display on the screen.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.
Edit
EDIT [/B] [/H] [/R] [/S] [/] [/?] [file(s)]

/B - Forces monochrome mode.
/H - Displays the maximum number of lines possible for your hardware.
/R - Load file(s) in read-only mode.
/S - Forces the use of short filenames.
/ - Load binary file(s), wrapping lines to characters wide.
/? - Displays this help screen.
[file] - Specifies initial files(s) to load. Wildcards and multiple
filespecs can be given.

Fdisk
Configures a hard disk for use with MS-DOS. (Not available for Windows 2000/XP/2003)

FDISK [/STATUS] /X

/STATUS Displays partition information.
/X Ignores extended disk-access support. Use this switch if you
receive disk access or stack overflow messages.

Format
Formats the disk in the specified volume to accept Windows files.
Syntax
format Volume [/fs:FileSystem] [/v:Label] [/q] [/a:UnitSize] [/c] [/x]
format Volume [/v:Label] [/q] [/f:Size]
format Volume [/v:Label] [/q] [/t:Tracks /n:Sectors]
format Volume [/v:Label] [/q]
format Volume [/q]
format Volume [/s]
Parameters
Volume
Specifies the mount point, volume name, or drive letter (followed by a colon), of the drive you want to format. If you do not specify any of the following command-line options, format uses the volume type to determine the default format for the disk.
/fs:FileSystem
Specifies the file system to use file allocation table (FAT), FAT32, or NTFS. Floppy disks can use only the FAT file system.
/v:Label
Specifies the volume label. If you omit the /v command-line option or use it without specifying a volume label, format prompts you for the volume label after the formatting is completed. Use the syntax /v: to prevent the prompt for a volume label. If you format more than one disk by using one format command, all of the disks will be given the same volume label. For more information about disk volume labels, see Related Topics.
/a:UnitSize
Specifies the allocation unit size to use on FAT, FAT32, or NTFS volumes. If you do not specify UnitSize, it is chosen based on volume size. The following table lists valid values for UnitSize.
Value
Description
512
Creates 512 bytes per cluster.
1024
Creates 1024 bytes per cluster.
2048
Creates 2048 bytes per cluster.
4096
Creates 4096 bytes per cluster.
8192
Creates 8192 bytes per cluster.
16K
Creates 16 kilobytes per cluster.
32K
Creates 32 kilobytes per cluster.
64K
Creates 64 kilobytes per cluster.
/q
Performs a quick format. Deletes the file table and the root directory of a previously formatted volume but does not perform a sector by sector scan for bad areas. You should use the /q command-line option to format only previously formatted volumes that you know are in good condition.
/f:Size
Specifies the size of the floppy disk to format. When possible, use this command-line option instead of the /t and /n command-line options. Windows accepts the following value for size:
1440 or 1440k or 1440kb or 1.44 or 1.44m or 1.44mb
1.44-MB, double-sided, quadruple-density, 3.5-inch disk
/t:Tracks
Specifies the number of tracks on the disk. When possible, use the /f command-line option instead of this command-line option. If you use the /t command-line option, you must also use the /n command-line option. These two command-line options provide an alternative method of specifying the size of the disk being formatted. You cannot use the /f command-line option with the /t command-line option.
/n:Sectors
Specifies the number of sectors per track. When possible, use the /f command-line option instead of this command-line option. If you use the /n command-line option, you must also use the /t command-line option. These two command-line options provide an alternative method of specifying the size of the disk being formatted. You cannot use the /f command-line option with the /n command-line option.
/c
NTFS only. Files created on the new volume will be compressed by default.
/x
Causes the volume to dismount, if necessary, before it is formatted. Any open handles to the volume will no longer be valid.

/s
Copies system files to the formatted disk. (Windows 9x only)
MD/CD/RD
Mkdir (MD)
Creates a directory or subdirectory.
Syntax
mkdir [Drive:]Path
md [Drive:]Path
Parameters
Drive:
Specifies the drive on which you want to create the new directory.
Path
Required. Specifies the name and location of the new directory. The maximum length of any single path is determined by the file system.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.
Displays the name of or changes the current directory.

CHDIR (CD)
CHDIR [/D] [drive:][path]
CHDIR [..]
CD [/D] [drive:][path]
CD [..]

.. Specifies that you want to change to the parent directory.

Type CD drive: to display the current directory in the specified drive.
Type CD without parameters to display the current drive and directory.

Use the /D switch to change current drive in addition to changing current
directory for a drive.

If Command Extensions are enabled CHDIR changes as follows:

The current directory string is converted to use the same case as
the on disk names. So CD C:\TEMP would actually set the current
directory to C:\Temp if that is the case on disk.

CHDIR command does not treat spaces as delimiters, so it is possible to
CD into a subdirectory name that contains a space without surrounding
the name with quotes. For example:

cd \winnt\profiles\username\programs\start menu

is the same as:

cd "\winnt\profiles\username\programs\start menu"

which is what you would have to type if extensions were disabled.

Rmdir (rd)
Removes (that is, deletes) a directory.
Syntax
rmdir [Drive:]Path [/s] [/q]
rd [Drive:]Path [/s] [/q]
Parameters
[Drive:]Path
Specifies the location and name of the directory that you want to delete.
/s
Removes the specified directory and all subdirectories including any files. Use /s to remove a tree.
/q
Runs rmdir in quiet mode. Deletes directories without confirmation.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.
MEM
Displays the amount of used and free memory in your system.

MEM [/PROGRAM | /DEBUG | /CLASSIFY]

/PROGRAM or /P Displays status of programs currently loaded in memory.
/DEBUG or /D Displays status of programs, internal drivers, and other
information.
/CLASSIFY or /C Classifies programs by memory usage. Lists the size of
programs, provides a summary of memory in use, and lists
largest memory block available.
Ping
Verifies IP-level connectivity to another TCP/IP computer by sending Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request messages. The receipt of corresponding Echo Reply messages are displayed, along with round-trip times. Ping is the primary TCP/IP command used to troubleshoot connectivity, reachability, and name resolution. Used without parameters, ping displays help.
Syntax
ping [-t] [-a] [-n Count] [-l Size] [-f] [-i TTL] [-v TOS] [-r Count] [-s Count] [{-j HostList | -k HostList}] [-w Timeout] [-R] [-S SrcAddr] [-4] [-6] TargetName
Parameters
-t
Specifies that ping continue sending Echo Request messages to the destination until interrupted. To interrupt and display statistics, press CTRL+BREAK. To interrupt and quit ping, press CTRL+C.
-a
Specifies that reverse name resolution is performed on the destination IP address. If this is successful, ping displays the corresponding host name.
-n Count
Specifies the number of Echo Request messages sent. The default is 4.
-l Size
Specifies the length, in bytes, of the Data field in the Echo Request messages sent. The default is 32. The maximum Size is 65,527.
-f
Specifies that Echo Request messages are sent with the Don't Fragment flag in the IP header set to 1 (available on IPv4 only). The Echo Request message cannot be fragmented by routers in the path to the destination. This parameter is useful for troubleshooting path Maximum Transmission Unit (PMTU) problems.
-i TTL
Specifies the value of the TTL field in the IP header for Echo Request messages sent. The default is the default TTL value for the host. The maximum TTL is 255.
-v TOS
Specifies the value of the Type of Service (TOS) field in the IP header for Echo Request messages sent (available on IPv4 only). The default is 0. TOS is specified as a decimal value from 0 through 255.
-r Count
Specifies that the Record Route option in the IP header is used to record the path taken by the Echo Request message and corresponding Echo Reply message (available on IPv4 only). Each hop in the path uses an entry in the Record Route option. If possible, specify a Count that is equal to or greater than the number of hops between the source and destination. The Count must be a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 9.
-s Count
Specifies that the Internet Timestamp option in the IP header is used to record the time of arrival for the Echo Request message and corresponding Echo Reply message for each hop. The Count must be a minimum of 1 and a maximum of 4. This is required for link-local destination addresses.
-j HostList
Specifies that the Echo Request messages use the Loose Source Route option in the IP header with the set of intermediate destinations specified in HostList (available on IPv4 only). With loose source routing, successive intermediate destinations can be separated by one or multiple routers. The maximum number of addresses or names in the host list is 9. The host list is a series of IP addresses (in dotted decimal notation) separated by spaces.
-k HostList
Specifies that the Echo Request messages use the Strict Source Route option in the IP header with the set of intermediate destinations specified in HostList (available on IPv4 only). With strict source routing, the next intermediate destination must be directly reachable (it must be a neighbor on an interface of the router). The maximum number of addresses or names in the host list is 9. The host list is a series of IP addresses (in dotted decimal notation) separated by spaces.
-w Timeout
Specifies the amount of time, in milliseconds, to wait for the Echo Reply message that corresponds to a given Echo Request message to be received. If the Echo Reply message is not received within the time-out, the "Request timed out" error message is displayed. The default time-out is 4000 (4 seconds).
-R
Specifies that the round-trip path is traced (available on IPv6 only).
-S SrcAddr
Specifies the source address to use (available on IPv6 only).
-4
Specifies that IPv4 is used to ping. This parameter is not required to identify the target host with an IPv4 address. It is only required to identify the target host by name.
-6
Specifies that IPv6 is used to ping. This parameter is not required to identify the target host with an IPv6 address. It is only required to identify the target host by name.
TargetName
Specifies the host name or IP address of the destination.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

SCANDISK
Windows 9x utility to scan for file, folder, and physical disk errors. For Windows NT/2000/XP/2003 use CHKDSK.
SCANREG
Scans and backs up Registry for Windows 98/ME

Usage: SCANREG [/]


? : Displays usage.
BACKUP : Backup the registry and related system configuration files.
RESTORE : Choose a backup to restore.
FIX : Repair the registry.
COMMENT=""
: Adds the specified comment to the CAB file while backing up.

Set
Displays, sets, or removes environment variables. Used without parameters, set displays the current environment settings.
Syntax
set [[/a [Expression]] [/p [Variable=]] String]
Parameters
/a
Sets String to a numerical expression that is evaluated.
/p
Sets the value of Variable to a line of input.
Variable
Specifies the variable you want to set or modify.
String
Specifies the string you want to associate with the specified variable.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

Setver

Sets the MS-DOS version number that Windows reports to a program.

Display current version table: SETVER [drive:path]
Add entry: SETVER [drive:path] filename n.nn
Delete entry: SETVER [drive:path] filename /DELETE [/QUIET]

[drive:path] Specifies location of the SETVER.EXE file.
filename Specifies the filename of the program.
n.nn Specifies the MS-DOS version to be reported to the program.
/DELETE or /D Deletes the version-table entry for the specified program.
/QUIET or /Q Hides the message typically displayed during deletion of
version-table entry.

Type
Displays the contents of a text file. Use the type command to view a text file without modifying it.
Syntax
type [Drive:][Path] FileName
Parameters
[Drive:][Path] FileName
Specifies the location and name of the file or files that you want to view. Separate multiple file names with spaces.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.
Ver
Displays the operating system version number.
Xcopy
Copies files and directories, including subdirectories.
Syntax
xcopy Source [Destination] [/w] [/p] [/c] [/v] [/q] [/f] [/l] [/g] [/d[:MM-DD-YYYY]] [/u] [/i] [/s [/e]] [/t] [/k] [/r] [/h] [{/a | /m}] [/n] [/o] [/x] [/exclude:FileName1[+[FileName2]][+[FileName3]] [{/y | /-y}] [/z]
Parameters
Source
Required. Specifies the location and names of the files you want to copy. This parameter must include either a drive or a path.
Destination
Specifies the destination of the files you want to copy. This parameter can include a drive letter and colon, a directory name, a file name, or a combination of these.
/w
Displays the following message and waits for your response before starting to copy files:
Press any key to begin copying file(s)
/p
Prompts you to confirm whether you want to create each destination file.
/c
Ignores errors.
/v
Verifies each file as it is written to the destination file to make sure that the destination files are identical to the source files.
/q
Suppresses the display of xcopy messages.
/f
Displays source and destination file names while copying.
/l
Displays a list of files that are to be copied.
/g
Creates decrypted destination files.
/d[:MM-DD-YYYY]
Copies source files changed on or after the specified date only. If you do not include a MM-DD-YYYY value, xcopy copies all Source files that are newer than existing Destination files. This command-line option allows you to update files that have changed.
/u
Copies files from Source that exist on Destination only.
/i
If Source is a directory or contains wildcards and Destination does not exist, xcopy assumes destination specifies a directory name and creates a new directory. Then, xcopy copies all specified files into the new directory. By default, xcopy prompts you to specify whether Destination is a file or a directory.
/s
Copies directories and subdirectories, unless they are empty. If you omit /s, xcopy works within a single directory.
/e
Copies all subdirectories, even if they are empty. Use /e with the /s and /t command-line options.
/t
Copies the subdirectory structure (that is, the tree) only, not files. To copy empty directories, you must include the /e command-line option.
/k
Copies files and retains the read-only attribute on destination files if present on the source files. By default, xcopy removes the read-only attribute.
/r
Copies read-only files.
/h
Copies files with hidden and system file attributes. By default, xcopy does not copy hidden or system files.
/a
Copies only source files that have their archive file attributes set. /a does not modify the archive file attribute of the source file. For information about how to set the archive file attribute by using attrib, see Related Topics.
/m
Copies source files that have their archive file attributes set. Unlike /a, /m turns off archive file attributes in the files that are specified in the source. For information about how to set the archive file attribute by using attrib, see Related Topics.
/n
Creates copies by using the NTFS short file or directory names. /n is required when you copy files or directories from an NTFS volume to a FAT volume or when the FAT file system naming convention (that is, 8.3 characters) is required on the destination file system. The destination file system can be FAT or NTFS.
/o
Copies file ownership and discretionary access control list (DACL) information.
/x
Copies file audit settings and system access control list (SACL) information (implies /o).
/exclude:FileName1[+[FileName2]][+[FileName3]]
Specifies a list of files containing strings.
/y
Suppresses prompting to confirm that you want to overwrite an existing destination file.
/-y
Prompts to confirm that you want to overwrite an existing destination file.
/z
Copies over a network in restartable mode.
/?
Displays help at the command prompt.

storage part 1

Drive Interface Standards

Interface Standard	Speed	Notes
IDE/ATA	2.1 MBps – 8.3 MBps	528 MB limit PIO modes 0-2
ATA-2/Fast ATA	16.6 MBps	> 528 MB, 4 IDE devices PIO modes 3-4 DMA 1-2
ATA-3	Nominal speed increase	SMART
ATAPI-4, Ultra ATA, Fast ATA-2, Ultra DMA Modes 0-2, DMA/33	33 MBps	Introduced DMA modes and 80-conductor cable
ATAPI-5, Ultra ATA/66, Ultra DMA/66	66.6 MBps	Ultra DMA modes 3-4
ATAPI-6, Ultra ATA/100, Ultra DMA/100	100 MBps	80-conductor cable required Ultra DMA mode 5 >137 GB
ATAPI-7, Ultra ATA/133	133 MBps	Ultra DMA mode 6
Serial ATA (SATA)	150/300/450 MBps	7 pin cable

File System

File System Compatibility

FAT16

Advantage	Disadvantage
Compatibility with all Microsoft OS and some UNIX	Root folder limited to 512 entries
MS-DOS boot floppy can access	4 GB theoretical size 2 GB maximum in Windows XP
Efficient for small volumes (<>	Boot sector not backed up
	No file system security
	No compression scheme

FAT32

Advantage	Disadvantage
No limit on number of root entries	32 GB limit in Windows XP
Efficient cluster size (4KB)	MS-DOS, Windows 95a, NT 4.0 cannot access
Boot sector backup	MS-DOS boot must be formatted in Windows 95b, 98, ME
	No file system security
	No compression scheme

NTFS

Advantage	Disadvantage
High performance – as fast as FAT*	Incompatible with legacy Windows
File/folder permissions	No MS-DOS floppy boot
Quotas*
File compression
Mounted drives*
Change journal
Encryption*

Hard disk tool's

Back Up- Used to back up customer or personal files
Access threw command prompt (ntbackup), or Start-Programs-Accessories-System Tools-back up


Scandisk- Used in old forms of windows like 9x

Check disk- used to check the disk for integeratie
Access through command prompt (chkdsk) or my computer- (c:) drive-right click properties-tools- error checking.
Note to fix any problems after running Check disk in command prompt type
(chkdsd /f) and reboot

Defrag- De fragments files on the hard drive improving performance
Access through Start-Programs-Accessories-System Tools- Disk defragmenter
or my computer- (c:) drive-right click properties-tools- defragmenter.

DRAM- Memory that must be fefreshed

SRAM- Does not require refresh. Used for cache memory.

SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Ram)- Synced with CPU clock.

DDR-Dada read on rising and falling edge of computer clock to double the bandwith
of SDRAM

DDR2- Similar to ddr but 240-pin, 64-bit DIMM. Faster then DDR

Single Ranked DDR- Used one DDR module in a single slot.

Double Ranked DDR- Uses two DDR modules in two slots to double bandwith to the system
bus.

DIMM (Dual Inline Memory Module)- 168, 184, or 240-ppin. Pins on both sides are independent. SDRAM uses DIMM. 64 bits

SoDIMM (Small outline DIMM) Used in notebook conputers. 72-pin is 32-bits and 144-pin is 64-bits.

MicroDIMM- Smaller than SoDiMM, used in sub-notebook computers. 144-pinn SDRAM and 172-pin DDR

RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module)- 184 or 168-pin, 16 or 32-bit, 800-1600 MHz, 2 noches. Each Rimm slot mist be filled. C-Rimm can fill empty slots, Uses heat spreader. Current DDr and DDr2 is faster and less expensive.

Processors and cooling

I\o unit- is the front side bus or external data bus= it is were the data come into the processor

what ever the speed is of the FSB or EDB the speed of the buss must be matched on the mother board for maximum performance of the processor, other wise you short yourseilf of performance.



Bits- the number of bits of a processor is like the number of lanes on a high way= alowing data into the processor



Control unit- once data enter the poocessor it enters the conrtol unit and devide the data among the core or cores or your processor.



Arithmatic logic units/ ALU- Does mathmatical calculations and comparsions of the data



Regester- Scrach area ( like scrap papaer on a math test)= Holds all of the calculating data from the ALU



Back Side BUS- Connected directly to the arithmatic logic units, and the control units.



Cache- has 3 levels =Is a portion of memory usually a few megabites in size, and it is a calculated guess as to what the alu is going to need next, the control units is cappable of determining of what shold go into the cahche. EX If the Alu has performed the same calculations a few times in a row the control unit will guess that calculation is going to be nedded in the near future and it will send it to the CACHE.



Advanced trasfer cash/ ATC- were all three levils of the cash aer meshed toghter and runs at the same speed as the processor.

Processor info- If you have a 32 bit processor your going to need 32 bit drivers

Over clocking- Over clocking is were you increase the multiplyer onthe processor, Usually Threw the bios, But on old motherboards it can be done threw jumpers on the motherboard.

COOLING